The multiple indigenous peoples have been living in the extremely harsh climate of Siberia, Far North and Far East of Russia for thousands of years. They have worked out the ecological traditional culture that is most fit for these conditions. The culture of these small nations is fragile and rather unable to resist the expansion of the technological civilisation. The Soviet national policy of the 1930s, in itself destructive for culture (extermination of the shamans, isolation of children from their parents and from their traditional environment into the boarding schools) was followed in the second half of the 1950s by the expansion of oil and gas industry, which proved catastrophic for the environment of these peoples. With the exploitation of the oil and gas deposits between 1938 and 1989 the population has multiplied twelve times. Many indigenous peoples, e.g. the Khants, have been forced to leave the rapidly growing industrial areas.

The detrimental effects of sovietization are illustrated on civilized nations with their own well-established literary traditions (like the Ingrians) as well as on people living in their natural state (like the Saame Lapps of the Kola peninsula). The disappearance of a people can be slow and relatively smooth (as with the metamorphosis of the Itelmens into the Kamchadals), but also sudden and all the more brutal (the Siberian Eskimo). The identity of a primitive tribe can be extinguished by the mere destruction of their natural environment, entailing no open display of hostility.

The national policy of the Soviet government can be divided into two major phases. The first phase began with the establishment of Soviet power (the time differed from place to place) and ended in the mid-1930s. The second phase lasted until very recently. The first phase included collectivization and the heavy repressions known as “class struggle”. For most of the Siberian peoples collectivization meant forced settlement. Collectivization was followed by industrialization. Economy being an inseparable part of culture, this was an initial step in the ruination of national cultures.

At the same time it should be appreciated what was done for the development of literacy among small peoples. Many languages received their own newly devised writing systems.

Towards the end of the 1930s the situation changed radically. National writing systems were either replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet or cast into disuse. Local intellectuals were dispersed and killed. For many nations the final blow was the World War II. At the same time, official propaganda constantly intensified its efforts to depict Russians as the chosen people who would lead the whole world into Communism. This, together with the obvious political supremacy of the Russians, led several minor peoples to develop inferiority complexes to the extent that they denied their own nationality.

Surpassing both alphabetic somersaults and ideological hammering, it was the destruction of local economies that had the most destructive effect on Soviet minority peoples. Wasteful exploitation has ruined the frail tundra environment of the North as well as the orchards of the South, it has forced hundreds of thousands of people to engage in work that suits neither their abilities nor habits, nor even their understanding of the world. It has forced some nomadic tribes to settle, and, vice versa, it has led hordes of migrants to previously rationally tended tundra, forests and valleys.

The peoples and cultures of the Siberia are represented by four groups: Chinese-influenced cultures of the Amur River region; the Evenk, reindeer herders living west of the Sea of Okhotsk; the Koryak of Kamchatka and adjacent maritime regions; and the Chukchi, who, like the Koryak, were divided between reindeer breeders on the interior and sea mammal hunters on the coast.

Some of the indigenous peoples and cultures of Siberia are described below.

Koryaks

Koryak originates from kor which means ‘reindeer’. Korak means ’at the reindeer’, ’with the reindeer’. The Russians adopted this variant and popularized it.
Most probably the Koryaks were first mentioned in writing in 1755 by Russian explorer S. Krasheninnikov in his book of travels. The national policy of the 1930s encouraged the use of self-designations as the official variant. The Koryaks live in the northeast of Siberia, in the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula and on the adjoining mainland from the Taigonos Peninsula to the Bering Sea. Administratively the Koryaks live in the Koryak Autonomous Area of the Kamchatka Region of the Russian Federation (from 1933 to 1937 the Koryak National District). It covers 301,500 sq.km. The population is about 30,000 and the administrative centre is the town of Palana. The Koryak territory is mostly forest tundra and tundra in the subarctic climatic zone. The mean temperature in January is –25 °C and in July +12 °C.
During the last 40 years the degeneration of the Koryaks as a nation has been quick and, most probably, irrevocable. Soviet economic and national policy has consistently worked toward making the natives feel unwanted outsiders and portraying them as troublemakers in their own homeland.

The damage goes beyond simply the destruction of the Koryak culture. The atmospheric nuclear tests of the 1950s and 1960s have had catastrophic consequences. The radioactive contamination harmed the natural immunological system of Koryaks. For example, the bones of reindeer-herders contain 20 times more lead and 100 times more cesium than the bones of those who do not eat reindeer. During the last 30 years the cases of tuberculosis, high blood pressure, chronic lung diseases and cancer have sky-rocketed. The incidence of cancer exceeds the average by up to three times, and, in the case of cancer of liver, by anything up to ten times. The infant mortality rate is alarmingly high at 70-80 per 1,000 births. The mean Koryak life-span is less than 50 years.

Evenks

The Evenks were formerly known as tungus. This designation was spread by the Russians, who acquired it from the Yakuts and the Siberian Tatars (in the Yakut language tongus) in the 17th century. The Evenks have several self-designations of which the best known is even, evenk. This became the official designation for the people in 1931.
The original home of the Evenk was the Lake Baikal, where the ancient Tungusic groups have their origins. The Evenks now inhabit a huge territory of the Siberian taiga from the River Ob in the west to the Okhotsk Sea in the east, and from the Arctic Ocean in the north, to Manchuria and Sakhalin in the south. The total area of their habitat is about 2.5 million square kilometres. In all of the Soviet Union only the Russians inhabit a larger territory.
According to the administrative structure, the Evenks inhabit, among others, the Tyumen and Tomsk regions, the Krasnoyarsk district, the Irkutsk, Chita, and Amur regions, Buryatia and Yakutia, the Khabarovsk district and the Sakhalin region. However, their autonomous national territory is confined solely to the Krasnoyarsk district, where 3,200 of the 30,000 Evenks live. Close to 12,000 Evenks live in Yakutia. A large Evenk community lives in the northeast of China, close to the Soviet border, while others inhabit areas of Inner Mongolia and Manchuria.
During the first years of Soviet rule the Evenks were also forced to form tribal councils and executive committees to local districts. Soviet ideology was introduced and explained by propaganda centers that were also called "Red tents". In 1927 the reorganization of the Evenks on a territorial basis began, and national village councils, districts and territories were formed. In 1930, the Evenk National Territory was formed in the Krasnoyarsk district. At present only one of the ten Evenks live there. They form 20.3 % of the local population.

Compared to the other ethnic territories in Siberia, the Evenk National Territory has almost escaped the negative influence of the developing oil industry, although it has suffered a steady influx of immigrants. The peaceful life of the Evenk in the Irkutsk and Chita regions and in the Khabarovsk district was disturbed by the construction of the Baikal-Amur railway. This brought about pollution, mass deforestation and the destruction of traditional hunting grounds. The decrease in the number of the Evenk is most conspicuous in the Khabarovsk district.

Chukchi

The self-designation of the coastal Chukchis is ‘ankalyn’, coastal man, and of the tundra Chukchis, ‘chavchu’, reindeer man. In practical linguistic usage, the name chukchi, a Russian version of ‘chavchu’, has been widespread since the 17th century. It has been supported by Russian geographical names (Chukotka, Chukotsky Peninsula etc.) and since World War II the name Chukchi has been predominant in official use. Nowadays, it is in overwhelming use.

The earliest written records of the Chukchis date back to 1755 when they were mentioned in a travel report by the Russian explorer S. Krasheninnikov.

The Chukchis live in the far northeastern part of Siberia, in the area between the Chukotskoye and Bering Seas, which extends from the mouth of the River Indigirka to the Bering Straits in the east, and from the Arctic Ocean to the Kamchatkan Peninsula in the south. Administratively, they belong to the Chukchi Autonomous Region and to the Lower Kolyma District. The vast area (660,600 sq km) the Chukchis inhabit is a region with a harsh arctic climate. The Chukchi Peninsula belongs to the permafrost zone of the tundra, and the Chukchi Upland is predominantly mountain tundra, partly frozen desert.

The Chukchis are one of the aboriginal peoples of Siberia. Chukotka is believed to have been inhabited for about the last 7,000 years, although the ancestors of the Chukchis migrated there from the south somewhat later.
Chukchis are traditionally nomadic reindeer herders. They have always been more active than their neighbours. Chukotka has served as some kind of a contact zone. The reindeer breeders traded their reindeer skins, meat and furs for fish, train-oil and walrus skins from the coastal people. There has always been a lively trade between all the peoples.

Later the Russians tried to expand their influence under the cover of trade. The Chukchis were lured, with the help of bribes, gifts and vodka, to become reconciled to imperial rule and the pay of tributes. Sources from 1822 indicate that the Chukchis were left to pay tributes at their own discretion.

The Soviet regime introduced some changes to the life of Chukchis. In 1930 the Chukchi National Region was established. The rich mineral resources of Chukotka (coal, gold, tungsten, lead and mercury) were seized upon by all-Union enterprises. A badly polluted environment is the legacy of industrialization. Even the climate has changed. Relatively mild frost (–20 °C to –25 °C) is combined with piercing winds.

The rapid change of living conditions has generated some very serious problems, as it is difficult for the nomads to adapt to a settled life. While the traditional occupations have diminished, new, suitable jobs are not easy to find. Chukchis have mostly been restricted to cheaper, dirtier and unqualified jobs, since ordered work in an urbanized environment is unsuitable.

The preservation of Chukchi folk culture and the nation’s capability for reproduction is at peril. Children are brought up at Russian boarding-schools, maintained by the state, and allowed to visit their parents only during school holidays. Parents have been deprived of a chance to take care of their children, and to pass on to them their experience and customs.

Recently, the Chukchis have begun to revive as a nation. National problems that have so far been prohibited from discussion have become topical.


The Nenets inhabit the polar regions of Northeast Europe and Northwest Siberia between the Kanin Peninsula in the White Sea and the mouth of the Yenisey. Administratively these areas belong to the Nenets Autonomous District of the Archangelsk Region and in the Yamal Nenets Autonomous District of the Tyumen Province. There are now less than 30 thousand Nenets. The proportion of Nenets is decreasing in their native settlement areas.

Nganasan

The Nganasan or Tavgi Samoyeds live in the Taymir peninsula of Siberia. Nganasan is their self-designation. In 1989 there were 1,278 Nganasan and 83.2% of them spoke their language, part of the Samoyed branch of the Uralic languages. Taimyr Peninsula is enormous (862,100 sq. km.), and not much populated, but, still, the Nganasan are a tiny minority group among the 55,000 inhabitants of their territory.


The Selkups live in Siberia on the banks of the Taz river and between middle reaches of the Ob and Yenisey rivers; their territory stretches out as far as the Tomsk Province in the Yamal Nenets Autonomous Region of the Krasnoyarsk region and Tyumen Province. They form the majority of the population in the Krasnoselkup region of the Yamal Nenets Autonomous Region.
The Selkup yurts (settlements) were after the collectivization mostly abandoned. Russian settlements usually have never had Selkup names.
Now there are about 3,000 Selkups. Giving the Krasnoselkup region the status of the national Autonomous District is the least that should be done to maintain a hope of their national survival.


The Mansis are dispersed on a wide area - 523,000 sq. km. - in the northwest of Siberia, between the Urals and the lower courses of the Ob, mainly in the Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Region, the capital of which is Khanty-Mansijsk. There are about 8,000 Mansis, 6,600 in their autonomous district. Only 37.1% retain the language. Mansis have become an inconsiderable minority in their native territory. The written Mansi language is used in very rare instances. It has never been really introduced as the language of education.

Aleuts

The Aleut people are the native inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands, the southwestern part of the Alaskan peninsula and the off-shore islands of Shumagin. Since the beginning of the 19th century there have been resettled Aleuts living on Commander Islands (Bering and Mednyi) which are under Soviet jurisdiction. The Aleut District in the Kamchatka Region was established in 1932. In 1969 the Aleuts of those two islands were gathered to live in Nikolskoye, Bering Island.

In the middle of the 18th century, when Russians first explored the place, the islands were nearly all inhabited. The number of the Aleuts was estimated at approximately 25,000. Mass murder and enslavement of the natives reduced their numbers drastically. In the 1970s there were about 500 Aleuts living on the Commander Islands, but by 1990s their number had dropped to 300.

Summary

The expanding usage of natural resources threatens to place the indigenous peoples in a very difficult situation. From the whole Arctic population (nearly 180,000 people) less than 2% are employed in industrial production facilities. The industrial development and changes in the environment has brought about a deprivation of the language and cultural traditions of the nations.
The majority of the industrial migrants have settled in Siberia only temporally and they have no wish to understand the way of life, culture, customs or traditions of the indigenous peoples. The cultural conflict between the immigrants and the local people has added to the even so criminal influence of the newcomers: as a rule, crimes against the indigenous people and their property, as well as ecological crimes, are never punished or even registered.

Because of sparse population, insufficient economic foundation for medical services, racial discrimination in everyday situations and inadequacy of communication, the majority of the indigenous inhabitants cannot get access to modern medical services. Cases of tuberculosis and other infectious diseases are numerous.

Due to racial differences it is not possible for those estranged from their own culture to be fully integrated into the Russian society, at least not in Siberia or Far North. The racially different Ob-Ugrians and Samoyeds are quite openly discriminated against in everyday situations. Russians do not regard them (partly because of cultural differences) as full and equal individuals. For example, they cannot get proper jobs. The indigenous peoples become social outcasts.
Some hope can be found in the fact that several legislative acts of Russia include articles that give a special status to the “small Arctic peoples”. A few laws and statutes provide special conditions of forest exploitation in their habitation areas. The Law of the Mineral Resources provides that a part (although an inadequate one) of the profit from the exploitation of natural resources must be spent by local administrations to improve the social and economic conditions of those peoples.
In 1989 the Association of Aboriginal Small Peoples of the North, Siberia and Far East of the Russian Federation was founded. The above-mentioned regulations have been adopted largely thanks to the pressure exercised by this organisation.
And yet, the indigenous peoples are still in danger of cultural, or even physical extinction and more effective methods are required to save them than those that have been applied so far. Their future would be more secure, if the local officials adhered more to the laws. Further industrial activities on the territories of habitation of the indigenous peoples should call for contracts to be made and damages to be redressed.

Links:

Native Peoples of Siberia
The Endangered Uralic Peoples
The Peoples
of the Red Book
Uralic peoples of Siberia

Evgeniya Stroganova